| In their policy debates, countries often emphasise aligning STI policies with net-zero goals and the strategic selection of technologies. Financing these transitions, fostering private investments, and stakeholder collaboration and engagement are recurrent themes. | |
| The theme with the largest number of policies is net zero transitions in energy, gathering research and innovation policies targeting the decarbonisation of this sector. | |
| The largest shares of policies target firms and public research organisations, in a joint effort towards net zero goals. | |
| By large, the most recurrent instrument is Strategies, agendas and plans. These are frequently used to guide and structure net zero efforts in countries. |
In their response to the 2023 EC-OECD STIP survey, countries described their main policy debates around government support to net zero transitions (see Annex A for the raw data). The following issues were recurrently raised in national debates:
1. Strategic focus and prioritisation:
2. Financing and Investment:
3. Collaboration and Stakeholder Engagement:
The Net zero transitions policy area contains information on hundreds of STI policies that explicitly support the transition to net zero. This area is composed of a set of themes that are specific to the 2023 edition of the STIP Survey. Figure 1 shows that the theme with the largest number of policies is Net zero transitions in energy (AI), gathering policies targeting clean energy more broadly. It includes strategies and policies (e.g. major R&D and demonstration projects, new support schemes, emerging technology regulation) aiming to contribute to achieving net-zero CO2 emissions (i.e. deep decarbonisation), in any supply-side or end-use energy sector. This theme is followed by Cross-sectoral policies for net zero, which groups schemes that cut across sectors and target net zero emissions. Other sector-specific themes include transport and mobility and food and agriculture.
Figure 2 shows that most policies reported in the 2023 survey target Firms and public research organisations. Recurrent topics for these target groups include hydrogen, energy efficiency and decarbonisation (see keywords obtained by hovering the corresponding bars with the mouse). A large number of policies are addressed at National governments, reflecting the numerous strategies, agendas and plans used in this policy area (see below).
By large, Strategies, agendas and plans are the most recurrent instrument reported in this policy area (Figure 3). Project grants for public research and Grants for business R&D and innovation are structured around topics such as hydrogen, clean energy and energy efficiency (see keywords). The remainder of the figure displays various kinds of instruments that are less frequently used. Some include Networking and collaborative platforms that frequently address digitalisation (twin transitions).
Initiatives within the Net zero transitions policy area reporting budget data are more numerous within the 5M-20M and 1M-5M EUR yearly expenditures (Figure 4). There is little meaningful variation in the keywords across the figure's different budget ranges. The several national strategies mentioned earlier do not report any budget, shown as Not applicable in the figure.
Figure 5 shows that the United States has reported the largest number of initiatives in this policy area, followed by the Korea, the European Union and Portugal. The chart shows only the number of policy initiatives reported by countries and gives no indication of their scale or scope. The figure should therefore be interpreted with care. Clicking on a given bar in the chart will bring you to the corresponding country dashboard for Net zero transitions policy.
Table 1 contains the answers provided by countries (and other entities) to the following question: Briefly, what are the current main policy debates around how net zero emission targets are being incorporated into STI policy objectives, design and implementation? You may use the table's search box to filter the data by country or keyword. You may also dowload the data in Excel format.
Table 1. Policy debates in the Net zero transitions policy area
| Response | |
|---|---|
| Austria | The Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy's focus within the Federal Government's climate and transformation initiative rests on research and technology development, location and investment promotion, and qualification measures. These efforts are aimed at bolstering the Austrian business, research and production sectors, and the domestic labour market. Austria adopts a "transformative innovation policy approach" in applied research. This approach encapsulates, firstly, a robust emphasis on four transformative missions in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) to facilitate solutions for net-zero: climate neutrality in cities and regions, energy transition, mobility transition, and circular economy. From 2024 to 2026, during the RTI Pact period, 110 million EUR per annum will be allocated to support STI for net zero. Secondly, in these four missions, a strong alignment with sector and market policies and their tools (including public support for investments, acts, laws, and regulations) is crucial to augment the directionality and impact of STI for net-zero. Thirdly, a discussion is underway regarding the introduction of new STI tools to bolster net-zero objectives, such as public-public partnerships. |
| Belgium - Brussels Capital | The Brussels Capital Region, via its regional innovation ministry Innoviris, is participating in the Smart and Climate Neutral Cities Mission of Horizon Europe. This initiative includes around 100 cities pledging to achieve climate neutrality by 2030. Innoviris is coordinating the Climate City Contract, a research and innovation-oriented strategy to assist the Brussels Region in meeting its climate goals. This strategy supplements the robust environmental objectives present in the regional innovation plan. |
| Belgium - Federal government | In 2012, the Climate Change Service of the FPS Public Health initiated a program titled "A Low-Carbon Belgium by 2050." This initiative has a dual objective: to directly contribute to Belgium's medium- and long-term strategic directions for greenhouse gas emissions reduction policies in line with sustainable development, and to foster reflections and initiatives in this field to promote collaboration among various stakeholders. A draft law has been presented to the Parliament, aiming to reduce Belgian greenhouse gas emissions by 95% by 2050 compared to 1990 levels. This ambitious target aligns with limiting global warming to 2°C. The law also sets a goal of achieving 100% renewable energy by 2050. At the end of 2019, Belgium submitted its final National Energy and Climate Plan (PNEC) for the period 2021-2030 to the European Commission. This plan outlines the key objectives and measures for energy and climate policy in Belgium during the specified period. Regarding the energy sector, Belgium is focused on expediting the development of a hydrogen economy through calls for H2 projects, the establishment of a transport network with its clusters, and the creation of a backbone. Additionally, the recent establishment of a centre of excellence for climate research aims to strengthen the resources and cohesiveness of climate research programs in Belgium. |
| Belgium - Flanders | The transition towards a sustainable and climate-resilient society and economy represents one of the greatest challenges of the current century, with a strong emphasis on achieving a sustainable energy transition. The key to creating a more sustainable society and economy lies in the transition to a smart and integrated energy system powered by renewable energy sources. Prioritizing energy efficiency, maximizing electrification across social and economic sectors, harnessing the potential of residual heat, and promoting the production and use of renewable electricity are crucial in this endeavour. In recent years, numerous initiatives aimed at driving the green transition have been developed. Existing instruments have also been redirected towards supporting the green transition by imposing specific conditions for their utilization. Moreover, various studies have been conducted or are currently underway, focusing on areas such as greening the heat demand of non-ETS (Emission Trading Scheme) industries or addressing long-term energy demands in energy-intensive sectors. These studies serve as a basis for designing instruments that stimulate innovation and deployment in these domains. |
| Belgium - Wallonia | In 2023, Belgium - Wallonia did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Belgium - Wallonia-Brussels Federation | In 2023, Belgium - Wallonia-Brussels Federation did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | The EBRD and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) have joined forces with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to help keep the Mediterranean Sea clean. The Environmental Technology Transfer programme (https://fintecc.ebrd.com/ENVITECC) aims to finance advanced environmental technologies to ensure cleaner coasts and water systems in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Lebanon, Montenegro, Morocco, Tunisia and Türkiye. It helps private and publicly owned enterprises to adopt technologies that prevent pollution and enable cleaner practices for the management of wastewater and pollution. The programme focuses on promoting investments in wastewater treatment and recycling. It also works to reduce or eliminate persistent organic pollutants. |
| Brazil | In September 2016, Brazil ratified the Paris Agreement and committed to adopting measures to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which was updated in March 2022. Brazil pledged to reduce its emissions by 37% by 2025 and 50% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels, with a long-term objective of achieving climate neutrality by 2050. The implementation of these commitments is based on the National Policy on Climate Change, the Forest Code, and the National System of Conservation Units Law, along with related regulations, programmes, and planning instruments. At COP26, the Ministry of Environment (MMA) launched the Guidelines for a National Strategy for Climate Neutrality, which provides guidance for various sectors including agriculture, illegal deforestation, energy, CO2 capture and storage technology, transport, industrial processes and product use, and waste management. The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovation (MCTI) in Brazil plays a crucial role in supporting evidence-based policymaking and promoting science, technology, and innovation for sustainable development and improved quality of life. In 2021, MCTI introduced the National Simulator of Sectoral Policies and Emissions (SINAPSE), a tool that projects future scenarios for the implementation of sectoral public policies aimed at reducing GHG emissions. SINAPSE considers 48 policy measures across sectors such as transport, buildings, electricity, industry, land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF), and other cross-cutting actions. The tool allows for the visualization of results in terms of various indicators, including avoided CO2 emissions, sector-specific indicators related to health and social benefits, marginal abatement costs, energy consumption, and cash flows. It also incorporates intermediate policy compliance targets, enabling the identification of different trajectories from the business-as-usual scenario and assessing the feasibility of achieving NDC targets and net-zero emission scenarios. |
| Bulgaria | Following a decree issued by the Council of Ministers of the Republic of Bulgaria, several National Research Programmes were approved. The most significant of these is "Low Carbon Energy for Transport and Domestic Use (EPLUS)", with the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BAS) appointed as the lead organisation. The programme's main objective is to support R&D and demonstration activities for the adoption of new technologies associated with renewable energy and the decarbonisation of the economy. Within a relatively brief period, a large consortium was established to implement the Programme, comprising 16 organisations - both BAS institutes and universities - selected based on their competence in the scientific fields covered by the Programme. Subsequently, a Partnership Agreement was made between the participants, culminating in a signed agreement between the Ministry of Education and Science and the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences for the programme's implementation (DO1-214/28th November 2018). The research team executing the programme's activities includes a core group of 200 researchers from the partner organisations, chosen due to their competence, with individual activities performed by other researchers. |
| Canada | The Canadian policy community is engaged in several key debates regarding the country's science, technology, and innovation (STI) policy in relation to addressing environmental challenges. Two significant debates revolve around the focus of federal innovation funding and the criteria for industrial strategy funding in relation to decarbonisation and net-zero targets. One debate concerns the allocation of federal innovation funding and whether it should primarily focus on decarbonisation or also address other environmental challenges such as clean water and soil. The question is how to strike a balance and prioritise different environmental issues within the STI policy framework. The second debate revolves around whether net-zero targets should be mandatory criteria for federal funding related to industrial strategy. This debate explores the idea of requiring foreign investors to confirm a net-zero impact of potential manufacturing investments as part of Canada's efforts to transition to a low-carbon economy. To support its commitment to achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, Canada enacted the Canadian Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act. This legislation establishes a framework of accountability and transparency, setting five-year national emissions reduction targets and requiring science-based emissions reduction plans to achieve each target. It also establishes the 2030 greenhouse gas emissions target as Canada's Nationally Determined Contribution under the Paris Agreement. Canada's climate plan, which is guided by the Net-Zero Emissions Accountability Act, includes research, development, and demonstration of clean technologies supported by federal science and innovation programs. These efforts aim to scale up existing clean technologies and develop emerging solutions to reach net-zero emissions. The International Energy Agency estimates that nearly half of the emissions reductions needed to achieve global net-zero by 2050 will come from technologies that are still in the prototype or demonstration stage. In Canada, pre-commercial technology may account for up to two-thirds of the emissions reductions needed for net-zero by 2050. To support Canada's net-zero commitment and maintain competitiveness in the global net-zero economy, the Canadian government has invested over CAD $1.3 billion in energy research, development, and demonstration since 2017. The government continues to strengthen federal science and energy innovation programming, including increased funding for carbon capture and utilisation storage research, as well as the Energy Innovation Program. The government has implemented various initiatives to combat climate change and seize economic opportunities, such as supporting the development of an electric vehicle and battery ecosystem, funding sustainable agriculture research, establishing global research partnerships on climate change and clean energy, and investing in critical minerals and clean fuels production. The government is also developing a National Adaptation Strategy and a Carbon Management Strategy to address climate change adaptation and promote the carbon management industry. Overall, Canada is actively working to align its STI policy with its commitment to achieving net-zero emissions, investing in research and innovation to develop and deploy clean technologies, and supporting various initiatives to transition to a low-carbon economy while seizing economic opportunities in the emerging green global market. |
| Chile | In mid-2022, Chile introduced its first Climate Change Framework Law. This law sets the target of achieving carbon neutrality and climate resilience by no later than 2050. It also outlines concrete actions for 17 ministries to address climate change. Regarding Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) policies, the Ministry of Science, Technology, Knowledge and Innovation (MSTKI) is responsible for implementing the Climate Change Observatory (OCC). This project, a collaborative effort with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of the Environment, aims to transform Chile into a global climate change monitor. It intends to make data on various environmental factors - including temperatures, precipitation, sea levels, ice mass levels, solar radiation, wind speed and direction, among others - freely available on an open-access platform. This data will span from the north of Chile to its Antarctic territory. |
| Colombia | In 2023, Colombia did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Costa Rica | The new Costa Rican Government has cancelled the existing Electric Passenger Train project and introduced a new project called "Tren Rápido de Pasajeros" (Fast Passenger Train). The National Development Plan outlines an estimated investment of 337,017 million Costa Rican colones between 2023 and 2026 for this project. As of 2021, the project's progress was at 1%. Another project mentioned in the National Development Plan is the Limonense Electric Freight Train (TELCA). The estimated investment for TELCA between 2023 and 2026 is 296,742 million Costa Rican colones. As of 2021, the project's progress was at 7%. To support the government's recovery measures and ensure low-carbon development, the Central American Bank for Economic Integration (CABEI) has provided a loan of USD 300 million. This loan indicates future expenditures in low-carbon infrastructure and initiatives. Additionally, the World Bank has granted a loan of USD 300 million to support the government's recovery measures. The loan focuses on promoting low-carbon development, including the recovery of a green growth trajectory post COVID-19. Measures include the deployment of low-carbon technologies and enhancing the resilience of the national energy system. The "Fiscal and Decarbonisation Management Development Policy Loan" is another financial support aimed at post-pandemic recovery. The National Energy Plan ("Plan Nacional de EnergÃa"), outlined in the 2023-2026 National Development Plan, contributes to the decarbonization of the energy matrix through diversification with low-carbon sources. The estimated investment for this plan between 2023 and 2026 is $17 million. |
| Croatia | The 'Low-carbon Development Strategy of the Republic of Croatia until 2030 with a view to 2050' (LTS) serves as an overarching document guiding Croatia's transition towards a low-carbon economy and efficient resource use in the pursuit of sustainable development. It outlines three scenarios demonstrating the potential for reducing greenhouse gas emissions in Croatia, with the implementation of policies and measures across all sectors, particularly energy, transport, construction, industry, agriculture and waste management. This LTS stipulates that all sectoral strategies and plans should align with it and with the concept of low-carbon development. The Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Croatia for 2021 to 2030 (NECP) is a ten-year plan that aligns with the LTS. In 2023, a revision of the NECP was initiated to align the measures with new EU legislation and the updated EU target of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 55% by 2030, and achieving climate neutrality by 2050. The NECP covers all sectors, including energy, transport, construction, industry, agriculture, and waste management. It sets out measures to ensure climate neutrality while maintaining energy security and affordability. The policies and measures aim to contribute to the five dimensions of the energy union: decarbonisation, energy efficiency, energy security, the internal energy market, and research, innovation, and competitiveness. Broad consultations were held with experts from various sectors to openly debate gaps and opportunities, in order to select appropriate policies and measures that will enable a green transition and achieve climate goals. The implementation of these policies and measures to reduce emissions and increase the greenhouse gas sink in Croatia is monitored through National Reports, with the state of greenhouse gas emissions tracked via the National Inventory Report. Croatia is also striving to redirect capital flows towards green and sustainable investments to facilitate sustainable and inclusive growth. Public funds, both national and from the EU, are being heavily invested in projects and infrastructure that contribute to climate goals. For instance, 39% of funds from the National Recovery and Resilience Plan and at least 30% from the Competitiveness and Cohesion Programme (ESI Funds) are allocated for such purposes. Furthermore, all public investment types must undergo a climate verification test to assess their contribution to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and adaptation to climate change. This process follows the principles of 'energy efficiency first' and 'do no significant harm'. The core elements of Croatia's National Recovery and Resilience Plan for 2021-2026 focus on the green transition include investments in building renovation, renewable energy and energy efficiency, waste and water management, and sustainable and innovative mobility. The plan encompasses investment efforts in R&D and innovation, preserving biodiversity and ecosystems, transitioning to green jobs, and adopting the circular economy. As 39% of the country's post-COVID-19 recovery funds will be channelled towards a green transition, there are likely to be spillover effects in terms of innovation and R&D for Croatian firms. Sustainability, as a cross-cutting theme, is relevant across the thematic priority areas (TPAs) of investment defined by the Croatian Smart Specialisation Strategy (S3) and national strategic frameworks. The S3 aims to steer investment and policies towards key enabling technologies and RDI. Industries are increasingly shifting towards carbon reduction, with consumers demanding greater environmental accountability. This is particularly pertinent for carbon-intensive industries related to transport, energy, agriculture, and resource management such as wood and water. As such, four of the seven TPAs defined by the Croatian S3 reflect green transition efforts: Smart and Clean Energy, Smart and Green Transport, Sustainable and Circular Food, and Customised and Integrated Wood Products. The S3 allocates significant consideration to advanced technologies and solutions that will support the sustainable agenda. Alongside the 'Low-Carbon Development Strategy of the Republic of Croatia until 2030 with a view to 2050' and the 'Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Croatia for 2021 to 2030' (NECP), the 'Energy Development Strategy of the Republic of Croatia until 2030 with a view to 2050' and the 'Hydrogen Strategy of the Republic of Croatia until 2050' are also noteworthy national strategies aiming to steer the green transition. In the context of the Hydrogen Valley Initiative, the sixth of its kind globally, Croatia has committed to exploring and developing hydrogen as a fuel for the energy, transport, and other sectors, in collaboration with neighbouring countries Slovenia and Italy. In the energy sector, Croatia has a strong tradition in manufacturing, construction, and know-how. |
| Cyprus | In March 2023, Cyprus adopted a new Smart Specialisation Strategy (S3) for the period 2023-2030. The S3 takes into consideration European and national policies and priorities such as Cyprus's long-term strategy "Vision 2035," the reforms and investments under the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP), the European Green Deal, and the green and digital transitions. The S3 priorities align with the use of research and innovation (R&I) to achieve net-zero emission targets, including areas such as digital technologies, agrifood, renewable energy, maritime and shipping, and the environment. The S3 will be integrated into the new National R&I Strategy 2030 currently being prepared by the Deputy Ministry of Research, Innovation, and Digital Policy (DMRID), and the Action Plan of the National Strategy will include funding programs to support the implementation of S3 priorities. In 2021, a new National Governance system was introduced to coordinate the implementation of national actions for the European Green Deal and the revision of the National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) in cooperation with the R&I ecosystem. The system includes the Council of Ministers, the Ministerial Committee for the Green Deal, a Coordination Team/Secretariat, and 13 Technical Committees focusing on specific areas such as energy security, circular economy, smart mobility, and renewable energy sources. The DMRID oversees Technical Committee 5 (TC5) on Research, Innovation, Digitalisation, and Competitiveness, which provides recommendations on how the R&I ecosystem can contribute to the objectives of the European Green Deal. The Ministry of Energy, Commerce and Industry (MECI) oversees Technical Committee 13 (TC13) on Hydrogen, which promotes the production and use of hydrogen and addresses regulatory issues related to hydrogen projects. Cyprus has also secured technical support from the European Commission to develop a National Strategy for the promotion of hydrogen production and use, with a focus on green hydrogen in various sectors such as electricity, transport, and industry. The strategy is expected to be finalized by the end of 2023. The National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) for the period 2021-2030 provides detailed targets, policies, and measures to minimize greenhouse gas emissions and achieve national energy and climate obligations by 2030. The NECP considers all dimensions of the Energy Union and includes provisions for R&I activities to support the country's energy and climate goals. |
| Czech Republic | The Czech Republic is aligned with the EU's goal of achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050. To work towards this objective, a National Energy and Climate Plan (NECP) was agreed in 2020. The NECP sets ambitious targets to reduce emissions by 80% from 1990 levels by 2050 and outlines actions in areas such as greenhouse gas emissions reduction, decarbonisation, energy efficiency, energy security, and the internal energy market. It builds upon the State Energy Policy of the Czech Republic and the Climate Protection Policy of the Czech Republic. However, achieving full decarbonization requires significant technological changes in all sectors and the deployment of both natural and artificial carbon sinks to address emissions in hard-to-abate sectors like cement production and agriculture. To reach net-zero emissions, additional investments amounting to CZK 4 trillion (EUR 150 billion) from 2031 to 2050 would be necessary, representing roughly 4% of GDP over that period. These investments would involve large-scale electrification of transportation and heating, scaling up renewable power generation, completing the construction of new nuclear units according to the Czech National Investment Plan, improving building insulation nationwide, and deploying carbon sinks to offset remaining greenhouse gas emissions. In addition, the Czech Republic's recovery and resilience plan focuses on reducing dependence on fossil fuels through investments and reforms that facilitate the adoption of renewable energy, enhance grid capacity, promote energy savings and efficiency, and support the manufacturing of net-zero technologies. Proposed interventions include improving energy efficiency in residential and public buildings, installing renewable energy sources for businesses and households, promoting sustainable mobility and low-emission vehicles, investing in circular economy initiatives such as recycling infrastructure, and supporting water conservation measures. These measures reflect the Czech Republic's commitment to transitioning towards a more sustainable and low-carbon economy, while also contributing to the broader European efforts to address climate change and achieve a greener future. |
| Denmark | In 2020, Denmark introduced the "Future Green Solutions - Strategy for investments in green research, technology, and innovation", which focuses on seven selected themes, with four of them identified as missions. These missions are chosen based on Denmark's areas of expertise. Each mission involves a broad partnership that brings together stakeholders from across the research and productivity chain. Climate partnerships are established to seek funding from the Innovation Fund, which annually allocates resources to the missions. The strategy aims to provide a strategic approach to public investments and ensure coverage of the entire technology readiness level (TRL) chain. The Innovation Fund is granted a green mandate to distribute grants in alignment with the four missions and seven themes outlined in the green research strategy. In addition to the themes and missions mentioned above, the green strategy highlights various initiatives within the research field that demonstrate the integration of net-zero emissions targets into STI policies. These initiatives include the establishment of green education programmes, a roadmap for research-based public sector services, a national robot strategy, a roadmap for research infrastructure, and the new ESS-strategy 2.0 (European Spallation Source). Furthermore, in 2021, the Danish government reached an agreement with the farming sector to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 55-65% by 2030. The agreement is accompanied by significant investments in green technologies to facilitate the transition to sustainability in the farming sector. |
| Estonia | Estonia has committed to becoming a competitive climate-neutral country with a knowledge-based society and economy by 2050. To realise this ambition, the Government has prioritised this area, restructuring its ministerial framework and establishing a separate ministry dedicated to climate and the living environment. The Government has also endorsed several objectives linked to climate neutrality, which include: 1) boosting the production of renewable energy; 2) hastening the shift to a circular economy to maximise the reuse of natural resources and raw materials while reducing waste; 3) curbing carbon emissions in transport, construction, and natural resource utilisation; and 4) promoting environmentally friendly solutions across all sectors and revising tax policy to support this. R&D and innovation serve as one of the tools to aid the transition to climate neutrality. The challenge in this field lies in aligning research and innovation activities more closely with climate neutrality objectives, fostering collaboration between researchers and companies, and encouraging the development of green technologies. The pursuit of climate neutrality is supported by the focus areas and roadmaps of the Research, Development, Innovation and Entrepreneurship Strategy 2021-2035, for instance. |
| European Union | Transport is the only sector where greenhouse gas emissions have increased in the past three decades, rising 33.5% between 1990 and 2019 . The transport sector is responsible for 23% of CO2 emissions in the EU (of which over 70% come from road transportation) and remains dependent on oil for 92% of its energy demand. It is also one of the main causes of air pollution, noise and important source of water pollution. As regards road transport, R&I actions will contribute to the irreversible shift to zero-emission mobility, ensuring that Europe remains a world leader in innovation, production and services in relation to road transport. R&I will target cost- and energy-efficient zero tailpipe emission vehicles (from two-wheeler to heavy duty), and the integration of these vehicles in the mobility system. Research must focus on actions to prepare the transformation of supply-based transport to demand-driven, safe, climate-neutral and sustainable mobility and transport services for passenger and freight. Cities play a pivotal role in achieving climate neutrality by 2050, the goal of the European Green Deal. They take up only 4% of the EU's land area, but they are home to 75% of EU citizens. Furthermore, cities consume over 65% of the world's energy and account for more than 70% of global CO2 emissions. R&I is needed to support cities in accelerating their green and digital transformation. The Cities Mission will support local authorities, citizens, businesses, investors as well as regional and national authorities to deliver 100 climate-neutral and smart cities by 2030. The mission will ensure that these cities act as experimentation and innovation hubs to enable all European cities to follow suit by 2050. There is converging evidence that the EU 2030 and 2050 climate targets are out of reach without quick deployment of innovative technologies for climate neutrality in the energy sector and by energy-intensive industries. This underlines the need for clear directionality and support through STI policies. In addition, STI policies need to look beyond traditional R&I goals and towards - even time-critical - achievements with an outlook on deployment 'at real' scale. This requires links and synergies with other policies and instruments with the aim to create and help implement innovation and investment pipelines. On the R&I side, this involves strategies to bring important technologies under development to higher technology readiness levels and towards first-of-a-kind installations. The ERA industrial technology roadmap for low-carbon technologies in energy-intensive industries identifies that there is an investment gap to bring innovative technologies to first-of-a-kind demonstrators. It is precisely the scale-up and deployment of these technologies that will enable the EU to reach its climate targets. The Commission services work therefore in cross-policy cooperation on identifying and filling investment gaps and accelerating the demonstration of new technologies in first-of-a-kind installations by 2030 to increase independence from fossil fuels, reach climate neutrality, enhance the energy efficiency, and support a shift in energy consumption in energy-intensive industries by 2050. Towards that objective, they have gathered an overview of relevant demonstrators developing technologies for climate neutrality that have received funding through EU instruments. An analysis of this overview is to be published in June 2023. |
| Finland | Climate change is significantly impacting Finland, with temperatures projected to rise by 2-6 degrees Celsius by the century's end - an increase three times greater than the global average. Finland pledged to mitigate climate change and adapt to its impacts in line with the Paris Agreement, signed in 2015. Legal emission targets have been set (under the Climate Change Act), mandating that Finland will achieve carbon neutrality by 2035. Besides climate change mitigation, adaptation and preparedness for the effects of climate change are crucial. Climate policy is likely to be a central topic in government negotiations in spring 2023. An estimated investment of approximately 20 billion euros will be required to reduce energy system emissions to near zero, a task to be undertaken between 2020 and 2050. Additionally, similar investments are necessary in energy networks, systems, and renewable processes in energy-intensive industries. It is vital for businesses to discover cost-effective, technology-neutral, and market-based methods to lower emissions. Policy Implementation A significant policy debate within STI-policy is whether Finnish STI-policy should promote carbon-neutral innovations through a more bottom-up approach or increasingly utilise a top-down/mission-oriented innovation policy. Although a bottom-up approach enables efficient resource allocation, the urgency of climate change is increasing pressure on the public sector to redirect resources away from environmentally damaging technologies. Striking the right balance is a pressing point of discussion. In line with the multiannual funding plan prepared by the parliamentary working group, national strategic priorities will be identified under the direction of the reformed Research and Innovation Council. Global change directions, green transition requirements, and prerequisites and boundary conditions for growth will be identified in the selection process. The aim is to guide research and innovation policy towards promoting the green transition. High-quality scientific research, research-based knowledge, and scientific data usage play a key role in addressing climate change challenges. The Academy of Finland funds research across all scientific disciplines, thereby supporting the attainment of net-zero emission targets through various funding instruments. The Academy has amalgamated research on climate change and carbon neutrality carried out in different projects into a single programme, aiming to build synergies and strengthen research on climate change and carbon neutrality. This programme also aims to support the societal application of the research, enhance the Academy's visibility as a research funding agency in this field, and support Finnish scientists in their impact work, highlighting the importance of high-quality research in climate change mitigation and adaptation. The Academy has also committed to Society's Commitment to Sustainable Development for 2022-2025. This commitment aims to raise awareness of sustainable development principles and highlight their importance in research funding and work. The Strategic Research Council (SRC) funds high-quality research with considerable societal relevance and impact. The Finnish Government determines research needs for SRC funding. The Government has chosen the Just Green Transition as the theme for strategic research programmes in 2023. The crosscutting priority in the 2023 programmes (Energy Solutions as Part of a Just Green Transition and Societal Solutions in a Just Green Transition) is resilience. The National Innovation Funding agency, Business Finland, plays a major role in facilitating the shift towards a green transition driven by innovation. The support provided includes grants and loans for businesses, as well as research funding for universities and research institutes. Business Finland has long prioritised low carbon and net-zero solutions in its activities and funding. Approximately half of Business Finland's RDI funding is allocated to projects that advance the green transition. The organization also manages the Energy Aid Scheme, which provides grants for investments promoting renewable energy production or utilization, energy conservation, efficient energy production or utilization, and the implementation of related new technologies. Business Finland's programs and missions offer a variety of funding and other services to activate and encourage Finnish actors in RDI across different thematic areas. For example, in 2023, Business Finland launched the Decarbonized Cities Program, which aims to improve Finland's long-term competitiveness and increase exports by encouraging companies to develop internationally successful solutions for the carbon-neutrality challenges of selected partner cities. In 2021, Business Finland initiated its first two pilot missions, one of which is the Carbon Neutral Finland mission. These missions aim to enhance the potential of Finnish companies to capitalize on significant future market opportunities, while also driving societal and systemic changes in response to global challenges. Finland's Recovery and Resilience Plan, which includes funding from the EU's Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF), allocates 695 million euros out of a total RRF funding of 1.8 billion euros to projects related to the green transition. STI-related funding is estimated to account for over half of the total amount. The projects under the green transition aim to promote clean energy production, solutions for industrial circular economy, low-emission innovations, adoption of new technologies, services, and practices in the construction sector, support for public charging infrastructure for electric vehicles, and nature-based solutions. Additionally, the Finnish Climate Fund, established in 2021 as a state-owned company with a specific focus on climate change mitigation, employs various financing tools, such as capital loans, to finance initiatives targeting the reduction of climate change impacts, acceleration of low-carbon industries, and advancement of digitalization. In 2022, the Finnish government accepted a resolution on technology policy that highlights sustainable development as a key foundation for technology policy. The resolution recognizes Finland's advantageous circumstances that enable it to make a significant contribution to addressing climate change, despite its relatively small size on the global scale. Finnish technology and its innovative solutions play a crucial role in reducing the global carbon footprint, making sustainable development a primary focus of Finnish technology policy. To achieve this goal, the resolution defines three methods: (1) Purposeful use of new technologies, (2) Pioneering climate and environmental solutions, and (3) Utilizing technologies to support security of supply. Business Perspective Finnish businesses widely acknowledge that prioritizing climate action leadership can yield economic benefits. The innovations developed to support the green transition offer Finland the opportunity to simultaneously reduce greenhouse gas emissions, create new jobs, improve the economy and exports, enhance the carbon footprint, and promote biodiversity. For instance, the Confederation of Finnish Industries highlights the advancement of green growth as one of their primary goals for the upcoming government program. They argue that global markets for clean solutions are growing rapidly, and Finland, as an innovation-driven country, possesses expertise that is in high demand. The business sector has a significant chance to benefit from new climate solutions, but their development requires a robust and coordinated electrification of society, RDI funding, and the promotion of climate solution exports. Emission reduction should be targeted at various stages of the value chain, and it is evident that new material types and production methods are necessary. Notably, four energy-intensive industries in Finland, along with nine other industries, have developed roadmaps with the aim of achieving substantial reductions in greenhouse gas emissions by 2035. These roadmaps play a crucial role in the government's climate policy. |
| France | In 2023, France did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Germany | To achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the aims of the Paris Agreement on climate protection, and the global objectives for biodiversity conservation, Germany's economy and society must undergo significant transformation processes. Particularly in relation to the energy transition, additional R&D activities are of high importance. Key future areas of development include a resource-efficient economy, renewable energies, and sustainable mobility. Measures such as the research concept for Resource Efficient Recycling Management, the German Resource Efficiency Programme (ProgRess), the avoidance of process-related greenhouse gas emissions in industry (KlimPro Industrie), the National Bioeconomy Strategy, and the National Hydrogen Strategy aim to harness the potential for sustainable and economical use of biogenic and abiotic resources and advance the decarbonisation of industry and transport. Moreover, the Federal Government is promoting sustainable and forward-looking urban development across all ministries with measures such as the Strategic Research and Innovation Agenda City of the Future and the Future Building Innovation Programme. A series of inter-ministerial measures have been launched to fund battery electric and hydrogen-based technologies and lightweight construction, viewed as keys to a climate-neutral and sustainable transformation of the mobility sector. The Climate Action Programme 2030 outlines specific measures on how to achieve the targets set in the Climate Action Plan 2050. To aid the implementation and ongoing development of the Climate Action Plan 2050, the Federal Government has established the Climate Protection Science Platform. The overall goal is that by 2030, Germany will have reduced greenhouse gas emissions by 65% compared to 1990 levels, and that by 2045, Germany will achieve net-zero emissions. The Research for Sustainable Development Strategy (Forschung für Nachhaltige Entwicklung, FONA), which aligns research funding for enhanced climate protection and sustainability with the 2030 Agenda, and the National Biodiversity Strategy (NBS), a key instrument for implementing the obligations of the UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the EU Biodiversity Strategy, are important strategies for achieving this goal. Given the oceans' crucial role in maintaining the global CO2 balance and planetary air circulation, Germany supports marine research and participates in multiple international cooperations to develop new solutions for the protection and sustainable management of the oceans. |
| Greece | The project of Just Transition ranks as one of the most critical policy initiatives in Greece. Policymakers are collaborating with businesses and other regional stakeholders to develop economic strategies that are sensitive to the capabilities and conditions of transitioning regions. The goal is to direct policy resources towards sectors and actions that regional stakeholders deem valuable, thereby enabling the transformation of the region to a lignite-free economy. Significant resources are committed to the development of regional strategies - namely territorial just transition plans, which involve a broad spectrum of stakeholders from each transition area. The policing challenge necessitates the development of new skills for policymakers and new capacities for the organisations implementing this strategy. In essence, the "plan" of a Just Transition requires a considerable learning effort from both the policymakers and the implementing agencies. The Research & Innovation (R&I) Strategy for the Just Transition (JDT) plays a crucial role in reshaping the productive patterns of transition regions in Greece. This strategy includes a roadmap for implementing interventions that will help achieve the strategic goals of the Just Transition Plan (JTP) through Research and Innovation. With regard to the Strategic Development Sectors in the Transition Regions, as identified in the creation of the Road Map/Contribution of Research and Innovation to the National Reconstruction and Development Plan for the Just Transition, priority is given to R&D Interventions within the energy sectors, IT and communication technologies, environment and circular economy, agri-food, tourism, culture and the creative industry. |
| Hungary | The Hungarian Parliament passed a law in 2020 mandating a reduction of carbon emissions by at least 40% by 2030, compared to 1990 levels, and achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. In 2020, the Government also adopted the Climate and Nature Action Plan. Besides sustainability commitments, this plan expands the use of renewable energy, promotes climate protection, and outlines measures to reduce waste, particularly the illegal abandonment and dumping of waste in the country. By the end of the 2020s, the goal is to have an energy sector capable of ensuring a high electricity supply in a consumer- and climate-friendly manner. It will incorporate innovative solutions and prioritise decentralised, renewable energy production and supply. The National Smart Specialisation Strategy also emphasises the green transition and circular economy. Some key objectives for 2023 include the following: - Developing projects that enhance the stability and resilience of power grids through innovation. - Launching projects to convert excess carbon-free power to gas (hydrogen, biomethane). - Supplying energy to settlements using natural gas alternatives, advanced technologies, and resilience services. - Developing strategies for the recovery, storage, or market-based use of waste heat through storage or conversion technologies. - Promoting innovative electrochemical storage of surplus carbon-free electricity. - Undertaking research tasks related to environmental protection, climate, and energy efficiency regulation of transport. - Providing expert input to UN Economic Commission for Europe and EU international transport environmental and vehicle regulations. - Conducting research and preparatory tasks to promote the uptake of alternative (electric, hydrogen) vehicle propulsion in Hungary and implementing the Jedlik Ãnyos Plan. - Analysing transport environmental protection tasks of the National Air Pollution Reduction Programme and the Air Quality Action Plan, and executing the necessary steps in a timely manner. Moreover, several other Hungarian strategies contain net-zero-related targets (e.g. the National Energy Strategy, SME strategy, Irinyi Plan). The National Smart Specialisation Strategy (S3) also emphasises the green transition and circular economy by outlining related national economic priorities (e.g. energy, climate; agriculture, food industry; and a resource-efficient economy). |
| Iceland | The Energy Fund, overseen by the Ministry of Environment, Energy, and Climate, operates with a technology-neutral and results-driven approach. The primary focus is to provide support for projects that aim to eliminate the use of fossil fuels in the short term. Therefore, the emphasis is less on research and innovation and more on practical initiatives that can be swiftly implemented, such as strengthening infrastructure for electric vehicles and implementing shore-side electricity for maritime operations. However, funding has also been allocated to pilot projects that are currently in the implementation stage. On the other hand, the Climate Fund operates under the framework of the Climate Act No. 70/2012, with two main objectives: funding climate innovation projects related to mitigation and adaptation, and supporting educational initiatives and the production of informational materials on climate change. The primary emphasis of the Climate Fund has been on supporting innovation projects that contribute to reducing emissions in alignment with the goals outlined in the Climate Action Plan. Projects that demonstrate collaboration between various stakeholders, including the industry and non-governmental organisations (NGOs), are considered particularly beneficial and are given positive consideration for funding. |
| Ireland | Ireland recognises and respects the importance of R&I, and believes R&I has been central in developing an understanding of climate change and its consequences. This will be crucial in providing the best data and evidence to enable Ireland decouple its greenhouse gas emissions from economic activity, and provide innovative solutions to challenges posed by climate change. Net zero requires a national transformation. Achieving these ambitions requires a coordinated effort across Ireland and every sector involved. This is integral to ensuring systemic change. The Climate Action Plan is the shared national plan which surrounds net zero and net zero emission targets being incorporated into STI policy, design and implementation via the accompanying Annex of Actions. The Climate Action Plan has the ambition of halving Ireland's greenhouse gas emissions by the end of the decade (2030), and putting Ireland on course to becoming carbon neutral by 2050. Ireland understands that it is fundamental that net zero targets are incorporated into STI policy to achieve a carbon neutral society. The Government provides significant funding to Ireland's research-performing organisations to carry out climate-related research in the sciences and humanities and to carry out policy-relevant research. For example, five measures related to RDI programmes for climate action have been included by Enterprise Ireland under the Green Transition Fund. The National Challenge Fund, coordinated and administered by SFI, is a series of challenge-based funding opportunities, where teams of researchers must work towards solutions in the areas of digitalisation and the green transition. The Climate Action Plan Annex of Actions details specific targets and actions by a range of stakeholders across several areas, known as chapters. The chapters encompasses a whole of systems approach, covering 'Just Transition to a Climate Neutral Ireland', Citizen Engagement, Transport, Industry, Agriculture and the Circular Economy, to name a few. For the first time, R&I was assigned a dedicated chapter in the Climate Action Plan 2023. The Department of the Environment, Climate and Communications is also developing its own R&I strategy for the sector. |
| Israel | Israel has a national action plan on climate change that includes promoting climate innovation and technologies. The Israeli Government believes that promoting climate tech can aid with mitigating the climate crisis, and in tandem strengthen the Israeli economy, by contributing to the diversification of industry sectors in Israeli high-tech, attracting investors, and diversifying the types of jobs available in companies engaged in technological innovation. Focusing on specific climate technologies or issues, such as carbon emissions reduction, is a good example of balancing top-down or bottom-up approaches mentioned above in question 1.1. In this case, how to leverage STI governance tools in ways that help climate initiatives and also incentivize innovation in leading technologies, while not letting the different goals compete and interfere with each other. |
| Italy | Since 2015, Italy has progressively aligned the National Research Programme (NRP), which defines the strategic priorities of the research system, to the EU R&I priorities, adopting the same architecture as Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe. In the current programming period, the cluster 'climate, energy, and sustainable mobility' is one of the major areas of research and innovation in which the NRP 2021-2027 is implemented. Starting from the EU and national strategic priorities for decarbonisation, the articulation of the priority research lines is defined to support the country's energy transition. The goal is to enhance national capacities, industrial, and infrastructural assets to seize the opportunities for economic, employment, and technological growth offered by the energy transition and to strengthen the country's role in the development of the Euro-Mediterranean area. In 2022, MUR allocated 241 M⬠to energy research, with a slight increase compared to 2017 (221 Mâ¬). National priorities also consider the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET Plan). Italy views the SET Plan as a fundamental tool to tackle the challenge of decarbonisation. Since its establishment, Italy has progressively aligned the objectives and priorities of public investments in research and innovation in the energy sector with those of the SET Plan. As confirmation of this commitment, Italy oversees all the key Actions of the SET Plan with its own experts who have set up permanent consultation groups with companies and national research bodies, maintaining collaborative relationships with other Member States. Following COP21, Italy has also joined Mission Innovation, the multilateral initiative that aims to promote the acceleration of technological innovation in support of the energy transition through a significant increase in public funding for research in clean energy technologies. Through the university system, the Ministry of University and Research is further committed to the training of highly specialised profiles necessary for the energy transition and the activation of dedicated innovative doctorates and National Doctorate Programmes (e.g., on Sustainable Development and Climate Change). |
| Japan | As stated in the Sixth STI Basic Plan, Japan will achieve the goal of net zero emissions of greenhouse gases by 2050, and create a circular economy through sound and efficient waste treatment and advanced recycling of resources. In so doing, we intend to create a world-leading society that produces a virtuous cycle of economy and environment, driving economic growth through the development of green industries. With this objective in mind, it is essential to operate three transitions - decarbonised society, circular economy and decentralised society - to reform lifestyles, the industrial structure, and the economy and society while solving social issues. It will also be necessary to set a vision and high goals, which industry, academia and government will need to work together to achieve in FY2030. Goals ã» In the midst of increasingly serious global-scale issues, Japan will contribute to overcoming environmental problems like climate change and ensuring sustainability in accordance with the SDGs by reducing its greenhouse gas emissions to net zero by 2050, leading globally toward net zero and, promoting the transition to a circular economy. Major numerical targets in Science, Technology and Innovation Policy (Key Indicators) ã» Japan's national greenhouse gas emissions and removails: net zero (by 2050) ã» Resource productivity: approximately 490,000 yen/ton (by FY 2025) Major numerical targets in the Roadmap of Follow-up on the Growth Strategy (key indicators) ã» Bring circular economy businesses to a 80 trillion yen market by FY 2030 Based on discussions with the Green Innovation Strategy Promotion Council, the government will seek to achieve net zero through energy conservation and decarbonising electricity (by accelerating the dissemination of technologies for maximum introduction of renewable energy and the use of nuclear energy, always prioritising safety). It will stimulate ground-breaking innovations such as next-generation solar cells, carbon capture, utilisation and storage/carbon recycling, and hydrogen. To encourage technology adoption and social implementation, it will advance public understanding and promote the decarbonisation of lifestyles, as well as build and expand zero-carbon cities, giving due consideration to the necessary systems and standards. With an increasing number of countries and regions declaring net zero greenhouse gas emissions and the global competition for long-term, large-scale investment in green transformation (GX) intensifying, Russia's aggression against Ukraine has reaffirmed Japan's energy security challenges, and in May 2022, Prime Minister Kishida issued a directive to materialize a new policy initiative to realize over 150 trillion yen in investments for 10 years. In response to this, and based on discussions at the GX Implementation Council, etc., the "Basic Policy for the Realization of GX - Roadmap for the Next 10 Years" was approved by the Cabinet in February 2023, following public comment and other procedures, in order to achieve the three goals of decarbonization, stable energy supply, and economic growth simultaneously through the GX by making maximum use of decarbonization technology fields where Japan has strengths. Based on this basic policy, the "Act on Promoting Transition to the Decarbonized Growth Economic Structure (GX Promotion Act)" was enacted on May 12, 2023, which includes legislative measures necessary for the early materialization and implementation of the pro-growth carbon pricing concept. |
| Korea | Korea declared its commitment to achieving Net Zero by 2050 during President Moon's National Assembly Policy Speech and the G20 Summit in 2020. The declaration was the result of over a year of preparation, starting in early 2019. Throughout 2019, a series of civil forums were held to discuss the vision for a low-carbon society. In February 2020, an inter-ministerial coordinating body comprising 15 relevant ministries was formed to drive the low-carbon society agenda. In July 2020, the Korean Green New Deal was announced as part of the Korean New Deal. Subsequently, the Administration began developing policies related to the 2050 Net Zero goal and introduced various policy guidelines, strategies, and plans. The two key strategies towards 2050 Net Zero are the 2050 Carbon Neutrality Strategy and the Long-term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy (LEDS). Additionally, the Moon Administration increased its 2030 NDC (Nationally Determined Contributions) goal from 26.3% to 40% compared to the 2018 level. However, these policy directions have faced criticism from various stakeholders for two main reasons. Firstly, nuclear power has been entirely neglected in the Net Zero strategies. The Moon Administration's anti-nuclear power policies during its term influenced the omission of nuclear energy from the Net Zero policy. Secondly, the Net Zero policy of the Moon Administration lacked consensus building across society, particularly with industrial sectors heavily reliant on carbon-producing manufacturing. Taking these criticisms into account, the Yoon Administration made significant changes to the Net Zero policies shortly after assuming office in May 2022. The Presidential Committee for Carbon Neutrality and Green Growth was established by merging the Presidential Committee for Carbon Neutrality and the Presidential Committee for Green Growth. This committee set new policy directions that include considering nuclear energy as a green energy source and emphasising consensus building and evidence-based policies. These new policy directions have been incorporated into subsequent Net Zero policies and the revision of previous plans. The 1st National Master Plan for Carbon Neutrality and Green Growth was introduced as an overarching strategy towards the 2030 NDC and 2050 Net Zero goals. The plan emphasises three principles: responsible policies and actions, systemic transition, and innovation-oriented transition. These principles have been reflected in all subsequent strategies, plans, roadmaps, and sectoral policies. |
| Latvia | In 2023, parts of the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development (VARAM) and the Ministry of Economics (EM) were merged to establish the Ministry of Climate and Energy. This consolidation aims to enhance the government's ability to address policy challenges in these fields effectively. The Ministry of Education and Science provides funding for research in areas aligned with the Smart Specialisation Strategy (RIS3), and research and innovation (R&I) efforts to reduce emissions are integrated into several RIS3 areas, including Smart Energy and Sustainable Bioeconomy. One notable national mission, coordinated by the State Investment and Development Agency (LIAA), is Sea 2030, which supports the commercialisation of research outputs focused on reducing maritime pollution. |
| Lithuania | National Energy and Climate Action Plan 2021-2030. The plan integrates energy and climate change management policy elements through 5 interrelated policy dimensions: reducing dependence on fossil fuels, energy efficiency, energy security, internal energy market and aspects of research, innovation and competitiveness. The plan describes the approved existing policy measures to achieve the goals set in these areas and offers packages of additional planned policy measures that would ensure the full achievement of the national goals. The expected effect of the measures presented in the Plan is evaluated by simulated calculations and presented in the analytical part of the Plan The goal of the transition to a circular economy is to maintain the value of products, materials and resources for as long as possible, while minimizing the use of natural resources and the generation of waste. This creates a sustainable, low-carbon, resource-efficient and competitive economy. This goal is pursued by promoting zero-waste and low-emission production and services, keeping the value of products and materials as long as possible, and economic activity based on the natural recovery cycles of systems. At the same time, by reusing waste, turning it into raw materials for the production of other products, dependence on raw material markets is reduced, which is especially relevant in the context of today's geopolitical situation. 2023 The Ministry of the Environment prepared a plan for Lithuania's transition to a circular economy until 2035. an action plan aimed at establishing more sustainable resource use practices. The action plan combines the measures planned in the existing strategic documents, which aim to ensure Lithuania's transition to a climate-neutral economy that uses resources sparingly and reduces waste generation, and provides for new ones. The plan distinguishes 7 intervention areas that contribute the most to the goals of the circular economy: industry, construction, bioeconomy, transport, waste, consumption. The planned measures include the development of systems, knowledge and solutions supporting the circular economy, the formation of demand for circular products, promoting industrial transformation and technological renewal, and the use of environmentally friendly and friendly raw materials. It is proposed to implement technologies that conserve resources and create greater added value, to ensure the principles of waste prevention and management hierarchy, to form sustainable consumption habits of the population. It focuses on the reorganization of product design, production and trade, based on the principles of renting, repairing, renewing, and redeveloping things. A lot of attention will be paid to ecological education of the population, strengthening of environmental awareness, encouraging to reduce consumption and save resources. It is planned to organize and finance informational campaigns that encourage the choice of reusable items, reuse them, reduce food waste, and strengthen food waste prevention. In addition, it is proposed to promote the development of the sharing economy by expanding the sharing network of items suitable for reuse, by financing the activities of preparation for reuse, and the activities of small repair workshops. |
| Luxembourg | In 2023, Luxembourg did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Malaysia | Malaysia commits preparing itself to mitigate the threat pose by climate change. To ensure the livelihood of the society and the economy sector are unaffected by climate change, achieving net-zero greenhouse gas (GHG) emission are incorporated into the Twelfth Malaysia Plan. The main objective is balancing the socioeconomic development and environmental sustainability through the adoption of circular economy model. Both, the public and the private sector are encouraged to adopt and integrate the Sustainable Development Goals (SGDs) and ESG principles as part of their decision-making process. These are to be achieve by transforming Malaysia from conventional linear model economy model to the sustainable circular model economy model (Circular Economy). In Chapter 8, 'Advancing Green Growth for Sustainability and Resilience' of the Twelfth Malaysia Plan, Malaysia aims: 1. Sustainable, low-carbon and resilient nation. 2. To reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions Intensity to GDP up to 45% by 2030, based on emission intensity in 2005. 3. Increased recycling rate of household waste by 40% and scheduled waste by 35%. 4. Reduced incidence of pollution. 5. Reduced dependency on natural resources and maintaining at least 50% forest cover. 6. Increased share of government green procurement to 25%. 7. Increased green financing, investments, businesses and jobs. 8. Change in mindset and behaviour in adopting green practices. Since the Eleventh Malaysia Plan, several policies introduced and implemented that already support the government aspiration toward net-zero emission target by making improvement on the governance and the financing. The National Transport Policy (2019 - 2030) was introduced to improve the integration and enable seamless movement of people and goods, as well as support the low-carbon mobility agenda by promoting new and more environmental-friendly technology in the automotive industry. The Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management (Scheme for Commercial Industrial and Institutional Solid Waste) Regulations 2018 as well as the Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management (Scheme for Construction Solid Waste) Regulations 2018 were enacted to ensure the separation at source of commercial, industrial, institutional and construction waste, thus enabling proper treatment and disposal. The Twelfth Malaysia Plan further expand the initiatives through whole-of-nation approach to cover areas of priority for Malaysia transform its economy into circular economy. Several enabling instruments for climate change were to be develop. A National Determined Contribution roadmap was planned to be develop to devise specific mitigation action plans in fulfilling the country's commitment to the Paris Agreement by specifying the amount of emissions that need to be reduced from each of the key GHG emitting sectors. A feasibility study also planned to be conducted on carbon pricing (i.e., carbon tax, Emission Trading Scheme) to recommend the most suitable carbon taxation system to incentivise the right behavioural changes and introduce a platform for carbon trading. To address the issues of climate change and disaster risks as well as promote efficient resource use, it is crucial for Malaysia promoting green and resilient cities and township by promoting the adoption of concepts of low-carbon city, sponge city, smart city and equitable transit-oriented development. For this concept to be realised, Malaysia Smart City Framework and Planning Guideline for Disaster Resilient City to be adopted in cities and townships development. Both, the public and the private sector have to play their role and encouraged to change and adopting green approaches in development. The adoption of green certification tools during the construction and operation phases, such as the Sustainable INFRASTAR, Malaysian Carbon Reduction and Environmental Sustainability Tool (MyCREST) and Malaysia Green Highway Index, will be expanded to more government buildings and infrastructure projects. The private sector will be urged to adopt recognised green certification and performance tools for new development projects as well as renovation and retrofitting works. Green mobility also an important aspect to be covered to achieve net zero target. Shift toward green mobility, particularly low-carbon public transport, and simultaneously improving micro-mobility services for first- and last-mile connectivity crucial to ensure seamless movement for more user-friendly experience. The transition to green mobility, which reduce air pollution and GHG emissions, efficient energy usage as preferred mode of transport to be done through providing incentive to local manufacturers to produce green vehicles and the purchase of these vehicles by consumers will be reviewed. The private sector also encourages to invest in advancing next generation vehicles, technologies and supporting infrastructure, such as energy-efficient, hydrogen-powered and electric vehicles, and their charging stations. Green-related incentives to be enhance to encourage investment on green mobility, as such Green Technology Financing Scheme (GTFS), Green Investment Tax Allowance (GITA) and Green Income Tax Exemption (GITE). B20 biodiesel programme also to be expanded throughout the countries in stages, with the B30 programme to be introduced at the end of the Twelfth Plan to increase the usage of biofuel. This including expansion of usage of green vehicles in public transport, as well as logistics and delivery services. The enabling ecosystem, in terms of policies, legislation, standards, incentives and best practices, will be strengthened to facilitate private-driven initiatives and ensure effective implementation of the green mobility agenda. In terms of energy sector, the development and utilisation of RE sources will be intensified to meet the 31% RE target of total installed capacity mix by 2025. The RE industry will be encouraged to venture into floating solar and waste-to-energy projects. This target supports Malaysia's global climate commitment is to reduce its economy-wide carbon intensity (against GDP) of 45% in 2030 compared to 2005 level. Realization of the Government's vision is crucial in supporting the nation to achieve its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) targets. The Malaysia Renewable Energy Roadmap (MyRER) is commissioned to support further decarbonization of the electricity sector in Malaysia through the 2035 milestone. This is expected to drive a reduction in GHG emission in the power sector to support Malaysia in meeting its NDC 2030 target of 45% reduction in GHG emission intensity per unit of GDP in 2030 compared to the 2005 level, and further reduction of 60% in 2035. The scope of MyRER includes three workstreams; assessing the baseline installed capacity and RE resources potential, developing technology-specific RE targets and scenarios, and developing a strategic roadmap. The MyRER considers two distinct scenarios for RE development in the nation towards the 2025 Government committed RE target and through to the 2035 milestone: - Business as Usual (BAU) scenario considers the implementation of existing policies and programmes without further extension and/ or introduction of new programmes; and - New Capacity Target (NCT) scenario aims for higher RE capacity target to align with further decarbonization of electricity sector in Malaysia toward 2035 milestone. This scenario is aligned with the capacity development plan of Planning and Implementation Committee for Electricity Supply and Tariff (JPPPET 2020) for Peninsular Malaysia, JPPPET 2021 inputs for Sabah and current outlook for Sarawak. |
| Malta | One of the thematic areas identified within Malta's Smart Specialisation Strategy is the Sustainable Use of Resources for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation prioritising further R&I investment to develop local tailor-made solutions, keeping in mind current and future climate change scenarios. The four niche areas of focus for this thematic area are: towards net-Zero Carbon Buildings, Renewable energy generation and storage, Resource Efficiency in industry and turning waste into resource. In October 2021, Malta also launched the National Low Carbon Development Strategy mapping out the country's decarbonisation journey up to 2050. The strategy also includes adaptation measures and initiatives addressing specific risks and vulnerabilities, with the aim to increase resiliency in the face of climate change impacts. |
| Mexico | CONAHCYT has made substantial changes to address ten substantive agendas, known as Pronaces, within the Strategic National Programmes to tackle priority issues. The Programme for Energy and Climate Change aims to promote comprehensive reflection and specific actions to achieve a sustainable and more equitable energy system. To this end, it provides a systemic, interdisciplinary, and integrated approach to energy issues, considering both energy production and final usage. It promotes long-term solutions that ensure sustainable and democratic energy use, guaranteeing access to energy services for the poorest and most vulnerable populations. |
| Netherlands | In 2023, Netherlands did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| New Zealand | There are three main debates related to net zero transitions: (1) Strategic coherence and scale - Numerous stakeholders in New Zealand's STI ecosystem view the country's climate STI action as fragmented, with smaller initiatives being spread too thinly. Many acknowledge that New Zealand needs a framework, such as mission-led innovation, to ensure strategic coherence, foster collaboration, and provide the scale of support necessary to address the challenge of meeting the net-zero emissions target. (2) Commercialisation system and support - Stakeholders regard the STI system as ineffective in facilitating the commercialisation of climate solutions and clean technology. With relatively shallow capital markets, New Zealand is viewed as having several "valleys of death" for start-ups. There are calls for increased support in areas such as talent acquisition, piloting facilities, and more. (3) An enabling regulatory environment - Innovators often find the regulatory environment either cumbersome to navigate or insufficient for developing new technologies. For example, certain uses of hydrogen require established standards that are not yet in place. |
| Norway | Norway's main policy for transitioning to a low-emission society is outlined in the government's comprehensive climate action plan, which encompasses taxation of greenhouse gas emissions, regulatory measures, climate-related requirements in public procurement, promotion of climate-friendly options, financial support for technology development, and initiatives to promote research and innovation. The Norwegian government aims to implement a general and cross-sector principle whereby all industry projects receiving public RDI support must contribute to the national climate reduction target for 2030 and Norway's transition to a low-carbon society by 2050. As part of an ongoing review of industry-oriented RDI support instruments, efforts are underway to develop green indicators and classifications to be utilised by public support agencies funding industrial RDI. Furthermore, the government has implemented goal-oriented policy incentives to promote the development of green industries within specific value chains such as batteries, hydrogen, carbon capture, utilisation, and storage (CCUS), offshore wind, and biobased industries. These initiatives are outlined in the Roadmap for a Green Industrial Boost. |
| Peru | Peru has increased its commitment to the Climate Change Convention, aiming to reduce carbon emissions by 40% by 2030 and achieve zero carbon emissions by 2050. In Peru, as in many Latin American countries, the mining industry is fundamental in the transition and manufacture of decarbonisation technologies. Examples include extracting minerals such as cobalt, copper, lithium, nickel, zinc, and rare metals used in solar panels or batteries for electric cars. Peru is actively collecting sectoral and national initiatives to achieve these objectives. This includes focusing research support on the decarbonisation of energy systems, and implementing laws that regulate single-use plastic through scientific research, technological development and innovation. |
| Poland | Since the early 90s of the twentieth century, great importance has been attached in Poland to the issues of environmental protection and climate change, which was related to the modernization of the economy and the introduction of modern technologies. Poland significantly exceeded its obligations under the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, in 1997 greenhouse gas emissions in Poland fell by 33%, but did not sell surplus emission rights. Poland has presided over the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Climate Change four times i this involved a strong commitment of the scientific community leading to progress in achieving the objectives of the Convention. Polish scientists and researchers actively contribute towards achieving the objectives of the Convention on Climate Change and the European Union's policy in this field. By presenting the scientific perspective on the issue, the scientific community seeks to participate in political and social debates on climate change. The Polish Academy of Sciences has consistently asserted its official position on climate change, emphasising that human activity is the dominant cause of modern global warming, for which there is irrefutable scientific evidence. They also reference the position of the Committee of Geophysics of the Polish Academy of Sciences on progressing climate change from May 2018, which highlighted discrepancies between media information and the current science paradigm in this field. In recent years, many initiatives were launched in Poland to build the knowledge of climate change and to disseminate it among the public. Under the Project KLIMADA 2.0, i.e. the 'Knowledge base on climate change and adapting to climate change impacts, together with knowledge dissemination channels, to strengthen economic, environmental and societal resilience as well as to support the management of extraordinary risks associated with climate change', a portal was launched to address climate change, also making available climate scenarios, the assessment of the climate change risks, the best adaptation practices, as well as the legal and economic aspects. In 2020, as part of the initiative 'Climate-friendly Cities' of the Ministry of Climate and Environment, city workshops were held as a series of discussions with self-governments and nongovernmental organisations on the common vision of a climate friendly and neutral city and the tools to support the transition of cities. University-level schools, self-governments and nongovernmental organisations also play a large role in the dissemination of the knowledge of adaptation to climate change. However, a significant portion of the population, including professional and social groups, feels threatened by the effects of the rapid transformation proposed by the European Commission. The main concerns are related to the adoption of the EU Fit for 55 package, which will entail a significant increase in electricity and heat prices and put many social groups at risk of energy poverty. A substantial part of Poland's scientific potential is engaged in various research projects related to the technologies necessary for a climate-friendly restructuring of the economy. The scientific community is aware of the persistent and significant "technology gap" which threatens the feasibility of plans to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to net zero in the economy (about 1/2 of the technologies determining economic transformation are still in the research phase). The 'Congress on Innovation in Energetics' regularly organised by the Chamber of Commerce on Energy Sector and Environment Protection, is a prime example of a policy debate centred on innovation for net-zero transformation. At the end of 2022, a comprehensive Eighth Government Report and a Fifth Biennial Report for the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change were adopted. This is a continuation of the reports submitted so far by Poland to the Secretariat of the Convention. The report shall include information for the period 2016-2019 and for subsequent years, if such data were available at the time of its preparation. The report presents information on national conditions in the context of greenhouse gas emissions and removals, their inventory, discusses national policies and actions, as well as their effects and projections. In addition, activities in the field of adaptation to climate change, development cooperation and technology transfer, research and observation, as well as education and raising awareness of Polish society were presented. |
| Portugal | Net-zero emission targets are a core goal in achieving sustainability in the nexus of natural resource-economic development-societal welfare. Portugal, situated under the Mediterranean climate change hotspot, experienced dire and contrasting climate extremes in 2022. Portugal aims to have an interplay of social-economic-environmental policies that are fully aligned with the goals of the European Green Deal. These sectoral strategies require high-level triadic coordination among distinct actors to make an impact in the governance system. Further policies and inter-ministerial cooperation will be decisive in reaching carbon neutrality by 2045. Incremental efforts are necessary to advance the implementation of actions, assess their impact, and achieve societal returns. The Portuguese public policy landscape reflects an increased commitment to mitigating greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and adapting to climate change. Portugal is actively working towards meeting the 2030 targets defined in the National Energy and Climate Plan (PNEC 2030), the main energy and climate policy aligned with the EU Energy Union and Climate Action mechanismPNEC 2030 is a crucial national policy instrument that spans multiple sectors and contributes to the roadmap for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Under this umbrella are planned national R&D programs in i) energy management intelligent systems and new infrastructures, ii) energy storage ; iii) Low carbon technologies; iv) energy efficiency; v) green hydrogen.Targeting complex climate change challenges, addressing knowledge gaps, and adopting increasingly interdisciplinary approaches entail a government commitment with investment in energy and climate up to 0.2% GDP each, by 2030, aligned with a total R&D intensity objective of 3.0%. Converging to this end, the Foundation for Science and Technology has launched initiatives under PRIMA (focus on water-food systems), DUT) (dedicated to urban transition challenges, from local to regional scale), and SBEP (directed to blue economy at the pan-European scale, considering the sea basins and Atlantic Ocean). Portugal also participates in the ERA Policy Agenda Action 11.3 ('ERA4FutureWork'), which aims to identify and recommend best practices, address gaps, and set future research and innovation investment priorities. In 2019, the National Council for Environment and Sustainable Development (CNADS) highlighted the complexity of PNEC and emphasised the need for a clear governance model for its success. It also pointed out the insufficient attention given to energy poverty in Portugal, which is now being addressed under the Recovery and Resilience Plan (RRP). The 2023 OECD Environmental Performance Review (EPR 2023) highlights the importance of quantifying the impact of present and future measures and determining how they will be financed. A significant concern relates to the Climate Framework Law (LBC), which establishes carbon neutrality by 2045. Although enacted during the Portuguese Presidency of the EU Council and aligned with the European Climate Law, the LBC has yet to be fully implemented one year after its approval. Achieving net-zero emissions through forest carbon sequestration requires the capacity to offset 12 to 13 million tons of carbon. The Voluntary Carbon Market, currently in a public consultation phase until April 2023, presents a promising mechanism. Since the forestry sector is predominantly private (97%), businesses can invest in Portugal to offset their emissions within the national territory rather than abroad. The approved 2023 Environmental Fund budget stands out from previous years at 1.2 billion euros. A portion of this amount is derived from the carbon tax defined by the Green Tax Reform (RFV). However, Portugal is recommended to complete the evaluation of RFV and eliminate any financial support that may potentially harm the environment (EPR 2023). Portugal boasts an attractive mix of renewable energy production potential, including wave, onshore and offshore wind, solar, and hydro-power. The country has significantly reduced GHG emissions over the past decade, partly due to the shift away from coal-fired power generation. The diverse renewable energy sources can potentially elevate Portugal from a Moderate Innovator to a Strong Innovator, as the European Innovation Score Board (EISB) indicated in 2022. Technological Free Zones (ZLTs) have been established to generate clean and renewable energy. Additionally, Portugal's geopolitical position along the Atlantic axis can enhance the country's initiatives in the Sea Economy, supported by the Ministry of the Economy and Maritime Affairs (XXIII Government) and the RRP, thereby aiming at improving Portugal's position in the EISB. STI policies and funding instruments play a crucial role in achieving carbon neutrality. Notably, potential funding from Cohesion Funds and the RRP until 2027 amounts to 22.5 billion euros and 13.2 billion euros, respectively, for netzero emissions , including STI funding. The National Investment Program 2030 sets the next cycle of strategic investments, particularly in the decarbonisation of the economy and energy transition. The implementation of Ambiente+Simples, however, is controversial, as its effectiveness in serving environmental policy and conducting environmental impact assessments is a subject of debate, as noted by the NGO ZERO. In line with the EU Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy, Portugal has designed policies such as the National Railway Plan (PFN) to contribute to territorial cohesion and achieve net-zero emissions. CNADS highly values the PFN and emphasises the need to restore deactivated railway infrastructure and establish efficient intermodality to facilitate the transition from automotive transportation to the railway system. |
| Republic of North Macedonia | In 2023, Republic of North Macedonia did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Romania | The 2021-2030 Integrated National Energy and Climate Plan (PNIESC) has been ratified by Government Decision no. 1076/2021, incorporating a dimension focusing on 'research, innovation and competitiveness'. 'Energy and mobility' are acknowledged as national smart specialisation priorities according to the new National Strategy for Research, Innovation and Smart Specialisation 2022-2027 (SNCISI), and are also highlighted in similar terms in several regional RIS 3 (Regional Innovation Strategy) documents. Energy and climate are also incorporated within the SNCISI, featuring on the list of societal challenges addressed by the National Research Strategic Agenda. This includes specific considerations regarding energy transition towards decarbonisation. Accordingly, various R&I programmes developed under the SNCISI may directly support technologies that aim for net-zero emission targets. Interim monitoring of the SNCISI implementation may yield more pertinent information on this topic within the next 2 to 3 years. Promoting the use of clean hydrogen also represents a national commitment at various levels. Further analysis of this topic is expected to be more thoroughly documented over the next few years. Additionally, the relevant transport ministry is planning a study to develop a comprehensive quantitative and qualitative analysis. This study will focus on identifying areas vulnerable to the risks associated with climate change and pinpointing locations where the infrastructure requires modernisation and rehabilitation. This is all done with the objective of ensuring superior resilience to climate change. |
| Serbia | As Serbia is strongly committed to achieving the SDGs, it has become the first country to develop a Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) Roadmap for the SDGs based on the smart specialization approach. The methodological and policy efforts on smart specialisation for sustainable development, supported by the European Commission. The Joint Research Centre and UNIDO, have led to the inclusion of the SDGs component in the Smart Specialisation Strategy Serbia (4S) and the development of the STI Roadmap for SDGs in 2021. Despite the success in developing this strategic framework, there are still outstanding issues that continue to fuel policy debates. One ongoing debate revolves around how to incentivise research and development of innovative solutions through regulations and standards. Additionally, there is a discussion about the role of policy and regulation in promoting research and innovation for achieving net zero emissions. Greater government intervention, such as setting ambitious targets, providing subsidies, and implementing regulations to encourage innovation, is being considered. Achieving net zero emissions will require significant investments in research, infrastructure, and clean technologies. Another ongoing debate focuses on the allocation of public and private resources, the role of financial incentives and instruments, and how to ensure that investments are directed towards projects that align with long-term climate goals. |
| Slovak Republic | In 2023, Slovak Republic did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |
| Slovenia | Investments in green transition, as are determined in the National Energy and Climate Plan of the Republic of Slovenia 2030 (with prospects by 2040) and also in the Slovenian Industrial strategy and will increase the current low proportion of renewable sources of energy, strengthen the energy infrastructure, and the measures for reducing air pollution will be implemented, the transition to a circular economy will be strengthened, and support will be given to strengthening social entrepreneurship and promoting efforts to limit the potential effects on the regions and sectors most impacted by the transition. The goals of the National Energy and Climate Plan 2030 are reducing total greenhouse gas emissions by 36%, min. 35-percent improvement of energy efficiency, min. 27-precent renewable energy resources, 3-percent investment in research and development, 1% of which is from public funds. Energy intensive industry (metal, non-metal, chemical and paper) is an important part of Slovenian industry. From 2005 to 2016, industry reduced direct greenhouse gas emissions by more than 35%, while process emissions were reduced by more than 20%. Nevertheless, a high share of energy intensive industry in the Slovenian economy structure means the greater vulnerability of Slovenia due to greater exposure to changes arising from climate energy policies. Most emissions originate from road traffic. Traffic is also the only sector in which emissions increased in the 2005-2018 period, i.e. by 31.9% (source: Climate Action Mirror 2020). New green and digital solutions will be the key areas of mobility development in the next decade, if we want to manage the emissions from traffic. Main policy debates are linked to coordination of different measures to increase the impact of STI to net zero emission targets. Slovenia must take advantage of the development potential of its domestic natural renewable resources, which can ensure an uninterrupted supply of raw materials, short supply routes and a positive impact on mitigating climate change. By increasing awareness of the importance of preserving the environment and with research and innovation for effective alternatives to fossil fuels, we will reduce the long-term negative effects on our living space. |
| South Africa | In February 2022, the South African Government published the South African Hydrogen Society Roadmap (HSRM). The Roadmap is aligned with the country's Integrated Resource Plan, the Integrated Energy Plan, and the Renewable Energy Policy, all of which acknowledge the critical role of hydrogen in South Africa's just energy transition, aiming for net zero emissions by 2050. The Government has also partnered with the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) to help create a National Hydrogen Energy Centre, which will institutionalise the implementation of the HSRM and ensure that the country's hydrogen roadmap is clearly laid out. As the country navigates its energy transition, the Roadmap is considered a milestone towards hydrogen development, envisaged to be at the centre of South Africa's strategy for economic growth and climate change mitigation. |
| Spain | Spain's policy for ecological transition is in complete alignment with the European Green Deal and its initiatives, working towards achieving climate neutrality by 2050. The country embraces a holistic and cross-sectoral approach where all relevant policy areas contribute initiatives related to climate, environment, energy, transport, industry, agriculture, and fiscal matters, acknowledging their interdependencies. Promoting research and innovation is essential for developing and implementing new clean technologies, sustainable solutions, and disruptive innovation. These will open the door to significant opportunities for novel business models and markets, and create jobs to drive economic growth. The research and innovation (R&I) agenda is pursued from a systematic standpoint that aims to build innovative value chains. Spain already holds a robust position in part of the value chain and R&I capabilities associated with the net zero transition, including renewable energies, power electronics, storage, and renewable hydrogen. To maximise the opportunities presented by this transition and bolster strategic autonomy, it is crucial to strengthen competitive positions where Spain already leads, reinforce those areas where its presence is less marked, and enhance the capacity to integrate these solutions into the productive sector. Thus, Spain's design, RDI, and manufacturing capacities can respond to the energy transition on a national, European, and global scale. In this context, it is imperative to exploit synergies within and between administrations at national and regional levels, alongside EU and international programmes, and involving private investments. At a national level, the Spanish Strategy for STI (EECTI) delineates a series of strategic lines in priority sectors and major tractor projects, including 'Climate, Energy and Mobility'. The strategic actions within this area focus on Climate Change and Decarbonisation, Sustainable Mobility, and Sustainable Cities and Ecosystems. Within the European framework, Spain actively participates in ERA Action 11 for Green Transformation, and in the Strategic Plan for Energy Technologies (SET-Plan) working groups. It is currently engaged in the revision process to align the SET-Plan with the objectives of the new European political context in the energy sector. Spain is also committed to building an R&I ERA Pilot on Green Hydrogen. |
| Sweden | Since the implementation of the Climate Law in 2017, Sweden has made significant strides in developing and implementing climate policies aimed at preventing harmful disruptions to the climate system, protecting ecosystems, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The first Climate Action Plan (CAP) was introduced by the Government in 2019, with a focus on enhancing integration across relevant policy areas to achieve climate policy ambitions. A new CAP is scheduled to be presented in autumn 2023. The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency has been operating a programme since 2015 that co-funds ambitious projects aimed at reducing climate emissions. Over 13.5 billion SEK has been allocated to climate investments through this programme to date. In 2018, the Swedish Energy Agency initiated the Industrial Leap programme, which provides co-investment in green industrial projects. Since 2021, the programme has been included in the green recovery efforts for a climate-smart society and is part of the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility (RRF) under NextGenerationEU. The new Government has increased funding for the Industrial Leap Programme by 600 million SEK annually for the years 2023-2025. In 2023, 1.35 billion SEK will be allocated within the programme. Under the framework of the EU Mission on Climate-Neutral and Smart Cities, and through the Strategic Innovation Programme Viable Cities, several Swedish cities have committed to climate transitions by formulating and signing Climate contracts. Six national agencies have also signed these contracts, aiming to provide support to cities in their climate transition efforts. These processes pose governance innovation challenges at both vertical and horizontal levels, and collaborative developments within cities, regions, national agencies, and EU Net-Zero Cities processes are being intensively pursued to address these challenges. |
| Switzerland | In November 2019, a civil society initiative known as the "Glaciers Initiative" called for the inclusion of climate neutrality in the Swiss constitution and a complete ban on fossil fuels by 2050. However, in August 2021, the Federal Council presented a direct counter-proposal to the initiative, deeming a constitutional ban on fossil fuels as impractical. Subsequently, in September 2022, the parliament introduced an indirect counter-proposal called the "Federal law on climate protection goals, innovation and strengthening energy security" ("Bundesgesetz über die Ziele im Klimaschutz, die Innovation und die Stärkung der Energiesicherheit"). This legislation incorporates the main elements of the initiative but does not enshrine the climate targets in the constitution. Instead, it proposes a new law. In March 2023, the parliament rejected the Federal Council's direct counter-proposal after adopting the indirect counter-proposal. The indirect counter-proposal will now be subject to a federal referendum on 18 June 2023. Depending on the outcome of the referendum, the new law could become a cornerstone of Swiss climate policy by incorporating the long-term goal of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050 into national law. It would establish sectoral targets for key emitting sectors such as buildings, transport, and industry, and also focus on climate-compatible financial flows and strengthening climate adaptation measures in line with the Paris Agreement. Under the provisions of the indirect counter-proposal, the Swiss Confederation would adopt a net-zero target for all its operations by 2040, setting an example for other entities. Additionally, all Swiss companies would be required to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. To support these objectives, the new framework law suggests two support schemes: promoting innovative processes and technologies in the industry with an intervention budget of CHF 1.2 billion over six years, and implementing an incentive program to replace fossil-fuel heating systems and improve energy efficiency in buildings, with a budget of CHF 2 billion over ten years. The implementation of the framework law is anticipated to be accomplished through future revisions of the "CO2 Act." |
| Thailand | Recognising the profound impacts of climate change on national economic and social development, Thailand has made significant efforts to address the issue. The National Strategic Plan on Climate Change was first introduced in 2008, directing all governmental departments and agencies to incorporate climate change into their policies and planning. The Climate Change Master Plan (2015-2050) currently represents the most comprehensive national framework, providing a long-term direction and key strategies in mitigation, adaptation, and cross-cutting issues to steer Thailand towards a low-carbon emission and climate-resilient society. The National Adaptation Plan (NAP), formulated in 2018, contains key strategies and measures to minimise risks and strengthen the capacity of institutions, systems, and actors to navigate the impact of climate change. It provides a framework for guiding adaptation efforts in priority sectors, namely water management, agriculture, natural resource management, tourism, public health, and human settlement. Moreover, climate change issues have been integrated into key national development policies, strategies, and plans across sectors, such as the 20-year National Strategy (2018-2037), the National Reform Plan, the 13th National Economic and Social Development Plan, and the Bio-Circular-Green Economy (BCG) national agenda. Sectoral policies and plans that facilitate carbon neutrality and net zero emissions include the National Energy Plan (2022), the Electric Vehicle for Public Transport Development Plan, the Master Plan for a Sustainable Transport System and Mitigation of Climate Change Impacts (2013-2030), the Plastic Waste Management Roadmap (2018-2030), the 20-year Agriculture and Cooperative Strategy (2017-2036), and the Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation Policy and Strategy 2023-2027. The top decision-making body on climate change issues is the National Committee on Climate Change Policy (NCCC), established in 2007 and chaired by the Prime Minister. The NCCC consists of members representing relevant agencies from both public and private sectors, experts, and stakeholders, with the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment serving as the secretariat. In 2021, the NCCC approved the draft Climate Change Act, which is currently undergoing the approval process from the cabinet and parliament. The Department of Climate Change and Environment has been established under the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. On the international front, Thailand became a party to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1991 and ratified the Kyoto Protocol in 2002 and Paris Agreement in 2016. The country has fulfilled a voluntary Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) pledge and implemented a Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Roadmap. At the 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26), Thailand announced its commitment to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050 and net zero emissions by 2065, pledging to enhance the NDC to reduce GHG emissions by 30-40% in 2030 from the previous target of 20-25% upon receiving adequate international support on finance, technology, and capacity building. The Revised Long-term Low Greenhouse Gas Emission Development Strategy (LT-LEDS) was developed and submitted to the UNFCCC in November 2022. The Technology Roadmap on Mitigation by STI, previously submitted to the UNFCCC, will be revised to reflect the new 30-40% GHG reduction target and align with the LT-LEDS, which requires additional technologies to achieve net zero GHG emissions. Thailand has actively participated in the UNFCCC technology and financial mechanisms through coordination by the Office of National Higher Education Science Research and Innovation Policy Council (NXPO) for the technology mechanism, and the Office of Natural Resources and Environmental Policy and Planning (ONEP) for the financial mechanism. Through UNFCCC mechanisms, Thailand has successfully established collaborations in climate technologies and finances with international partners. A total of nine projects - ranging from assessing energy-efficient street lighting technologies and promoting green building to developing climate resilient technologies for Thailand's agricultural sector and strengthening an early warning system to respond to climate-induced flooding - have been implemented in Thailand with technical assistance from the Climate Technology Center & Networks (CTCN), an implementation arm of the UNFCCC technology mechanism, with an ongoing project developing a master plan on green hydrogen technology. In 2012, Thailand completed its Technology Needs Assessment (TNA) and Technology Action Plans (TAPs) reports to prioritise technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and support adaptation to climate change with financial and technical support from the Global Environment Facility (GEF). The TNA report was used in the formulation of the Climate Change Master Plan 2015-2050, Thailand's Intended Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), and the National Adaptation Plan (NAP). The TNA report has also been instrumental in Thailand's international dialogue to seek support under Article 4.5 of the UNFCCC and Article 10 of the Paris Agreement. Thailand's TNA report has been recognized for its comprehensiveness and served as a case study for other countries embarking on the TNA process. A new study to update Thailand's TNA is being planned. To achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, Thailand has identified key measures, including increasing the share of renewable energy for new power generation capacity by at least 50% by 2050, and increasing the proportion of new electric vehicles (EVs) in the market, including battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), to 69% by 2035. The CCS/CCU/BECCS technology requires the deployment of carbon removal in the energy and IPPU sector (cement industry) in 2040. For net-zero GHG emissions, GHG emissions are expected to reach the peak level by 2025. The energy sector will play a key role in mitigating GHG emissions after 2025, and Thailand is expected to achieve a balance between GHG emissions by sources and removals by sinks in 2065. Coal phase-out and negative emission technologies in the energy sector, e.g., bioenergy with CCS (BECCS) or direct air capture and storage, will be necessary for the net zero 2065 pathway. The energy sector is a main component of Thailand's transition towards net zero GHG emissions. For electricity, the decarbonisation framework includes further increasing the share of renewable energy in power generation, with the share of renewable electricity estimated to be 68% of the total electricity generation in 2040 and 74% in 2050. Additionally, bioenergy with CCS technologies (BECCS) power plants will be needed to achieve the net zero CO2 emission target by 2050. Additional technologies such as biomass-based power plants equipped with CCS/CCUS, fuel cell power plants, hydrogen blend, and 100% green hydrogen will also be crucial. The key actions by 2030 to put the energy sector on a decarbonisation pathway include a solar booster program, no new coal power plants, flexible operation of the power system, and electrification of transport and industry through electric vehicles and heat pumps, respectively. Three mechanisms have been introduced by the Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation to support carbon neutrality and net zero GHG emissions goals: 1) Collaboration mechanism by establishing a network of universities as service providers to support climate initiatives of various sectors, a network of GHG reduction innovation in industry, and a link between policy and practice; 2) Technology development and transfer mechanism by developing a platform that facilitates the development and transfer of technology at the national and international levels, technology localisation, and designing a technology roadmap for climate actions; and 3) Financial mechanism by devising a joint program drawing investments from local and international investors to support R&D, scale-up, and demonstration projects. The roadmap to achieve net zero GHG emissions in five years consists of three pilot programs: 1) Saraburi, Mae Moh, and Rayong Models for net zero GHG emissions and brownfield rehabilitation; 2) Green Campus that utilises the capacity of eighty universities nationwide to create 400 green communities, 10,000 enterprises committed to a green policy, and 300 companies adopting green technologies; and 3) Manpower Development to develop 100,000 workers with knowledge in carbon credit and 50 service providers of green technology. A circular economy (CE) has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 39%, and therefore can play an important role in enabling Thailand to achieve the net zero emission target by 2065, strengthening the capabilities of Thai industry to export products to Europe when the EU carbon tax on imported goods comes into full effect in 2023, and attracting foreign direct investment (FDI) to emerging green businesses. A white paper titled Circular Economy Innovation Ecosystem: Vision 2030 has been formulated, aiming to reduce resource use by 1/3, cut GHG emissions by 30 million tons CO2, and increase GDP with CE by 3% through new regulations such as Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) and zero waste, and tax and investment incentives. To facilitate CE transition, seven flagship programs were proposed, namely: 1) Waste Symbiosis & Reverse Logistics and Recycle, 2) Capacity Building & Awareness, 3) Green Purchasing, 4) Unlocking Legal Barriers, 5) CE Solution Platform, 6) CE Guidelines, and 7) CE Law. Several initiatives have already been introduced. A circular design course developed by a Dutch organisation called CIRCO and customised to cater to Thai enterprises has been launched, whereas a new project to develop experts and specialists in carbon verification standard (CVS) and carbon credit trading has been introduced by PMU B. As the host of the APEC Center for Technology Foresight (APEC CTF), the Office of National Higher Education Science Research and Innovation Policy Council (NXPO) has organised a series of Circular Economy Technology Foresight Workshops to identify priority issues, solutions, and supporting systems to drive CE transformation. As a result, a CE technology roadmap for the Asia-Pacific has been proposed and incorporated into the Bangkok Goals on BCG Economy endorsed by leaders of APEC member economies in 2022. Transportation is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gas emissions, and therefore, a wide adoption of zero-emission vehicles can significantly support the net-zero emissions goal. While multiple measures have been introduced to promote the manufacturing and sales of EVs in Thailand, the government has also explored EV conversion technologies that offer economical options to low-to-moderate-income consumers to convert their fuel-driven vehicle to an electric one. Research grants have been provided for the development of EV conversion to consortia of academia and industry to facilitate the advancement of research to commercialisation. At present, EV conversion prototypes for electric trucks (a 10-wheeler, a 6-wheeler, and a 4-wheeler), electric buses, and electric motorcycles are ready to proceed to commercial production. Plans are underway to develop technological capabilities of enterprises and auto repair shops to manufacture EV conversion kits and offer EV conversion services and maintenance to customers. To reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the industrial sector, a joint initiative between the Office of National Higher Education Science Research and Innovation Policy Council (NXPO) and Siam Cement Public Company Limited (SCG) was launched to formulate an Innovation Roadmap for Industrial Decarbonisation. The roadmap formulation process engaged stakeholders from the public sector, industry, and academia and focused on technologies and innovations supporting the following approaches: fuel switching, electrification, carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS), and hydrogen. For each approach, innovation needs assessment was performed, key enablers were identified, and driving mechanisms for collaboration, technology transfer, and finances were designed. The exercise then resulted in an innovation roadmap which includes proposed driving mechanisms for fuel switching, electrification, CCUS, and hydrogen to support industrial decarbonisation. |
| Türkiye | Today's main focus of national economic development plans is the green transformation. Türkiye, one of the countries most affected by climate change due to its geographical position, contributes to global climate change measures. The country has ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement. It aims to fully harmonise with the EU Climate Acquis and has set a net-zero emission target for 2053. Consequently, institutional, legal, and policy transformations have recently accelerated in Türkiye. These efforts align with the country's green and sustainable growth strategy. Türkiye has implemented various cross-cutting and sectoral policies and measures to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and achieve its climate targets. The 11th Development Plan, which expires at the end of 2023, is crucial for socio-economic development and includes key performance targets for climate change mitigation. The 12th Development Plan, covering 2024 to 2028, is currently under preparation to align Türkiye's climate targets with economic growth, prioritise sectors such as manufacturing, and focus on green and sustainable practices. The Government has implemented policies and strategies across the economy to meet its 2053 Net-Zero Target. Türkiye has submitted its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) and plans to update it every five years. The updated NDC targets reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 41% by 2030 compared to the Business as Usual scenario. Türkiye is also developing its Long Term Strategy (LTS) 2050 and National Climate Change Action Plan (NAACP) 2023-2030 to complement the NDC and provide a detailed vision and policy signals for industry actors. The NAACP focuses on seven thematic sectors addressing climate change challenges: energy, industry, transportation, buildings, waste, agriculture, and forestry. The Presidency of Climate Change, under the Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation, and Climate Change, is crucial in coordinating Türkiye's climate change policies. Key policy documents include the Climate Change Strategy (2010-2023) and the National Climate Change Action Plan (2011-2023). The Climate Change Strategy emphasises integrating climate change objectives into development policies, promoting energy efficiency, increasing clean and renewable energy use, and ensuring a high quality of life with low carbon intensity. The National Climate Change Action Plan identifies sectoral climate actions and supports the achievement of the NDC targets. Türkiye promotes participatory approaches in developing climate policies, as demonstrated by the Climate Council held in 2022, which involved relevant stakeholders from civil society, the private sector, public institutions, international organisations, local governments, and academia. The outcomes of the Council serve as a reference for future political decisions on climate actions. Türkiye is actively working to mobilise and enhance the green growth research, development, and innovation (RDI) ecosystem in line with its 2053 vision. The 217 decisions, which were adopted with a participatory and transparent process by the Council, will serve as a reference point for the political decisions that Türkiye will take concerning climate actions in the coming period. Thus, the outcomes of the Climate Council have been published as a guidance document for Türkiye to combating climate change. Furthermore under the Climate Council, Science and Technology Commission was established to foresee the technologies of the future that are required and will contribute to Türkiye's 2053 net zero emission target and green development policy; and it was leaded by TUBITAK. 34 technology main topics and 262 sub-topics consisting of targets have been prioritized via more than 40 online meetings with the participation of almost 100 experts from academia, private sector, NGOs and public institutions. The outcomes of this study have been complied with updated prioritized RDI topics for climate change mitigation and adaptation. The Ministry of Trade has developed the Green Deal Action Plan, which focuses on the green transformation of Türkiye's industries and harmonising with the EU's Green Deal. The plan includes objectives and actions across nine categories to transition Türkiye to a more sustainable, greener economy. The mentioned categories are: 'Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms, A Green and Circular Economy, Green Financing, Clean, Economic and Secure Energy Supply, Sustainable Agriculture, Sustainable Smart Transport, Combating Climate Change, Diplomacy,European Green Deal Briefing and Awareness Raising Activities'. The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources prioritises using renewable energy sources to improve supply security and reduce import dependency. Türkiye's energy policies, outlined in the National Energy Plan and National Energy Efficiency Action Plan, influence emissions in various sectors. The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Türkiye (TÜBITAK), universities, and other research institutions in Türkiye play significant roles in climate research and in developing technologies to achieve climate targets. The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Ministry of Health, and other ministries also have their own strategies and research centres related to climate change. Türkiye's industry and technology strategies, such as the 2023 Industry and Technology Strategy, focus on developing breakthrough technologies, adopting green production policies, and establishing industrial symbiosis. The Green Deal Action Plan and Technology Roadmap studies support Türkiye's green transition in sectors such as iron and steel, aluminium, cement, chemicals, plastics, and fertilisers. |
| Ukraine | The implementation of the principles and objectives of the European Green Deal (EGD) in Ukraine during 2022 was marked by significant challenges related to the full-scale Russian military invasion. The Russian war against Ukraine and economic aggression against the EU countries caused the revision of many policies and measures related to the EGD in the EU itself, which influenced the processes in Ukraine. Despite all the difficulties, the implementation of EGD approaches remained among the priorities of the Ukrainian government and parliament during the year, and Ukraine's gaining the status of an EU candidate country created additional grounds for maintaining this priority. The general trends for 2022 are: - Slowing down the reform of energy markets and introducing temporary mechanisms to improve security of supply and protect consumers in war, which was partly aligned with practices in the EU; - Updating some sectoral strategic planning documents in the energy sector (e.g. Concept for the implementation and development of the green bond market, Concept for the implementation of smart grids); - Continued legislative work on the implementation of relevant EU legislation, while maintaining shortcomings related to the closed nature of the decision-making process and the lack of sufficient expertise of regulatory acts for compliance with EU norms; - Continued active climate diplomacy and, at the same time, a significant slowdown in the pace of domestic reforms in the field of climate policy and environmental protection; - Ukraine's access to certain EU financial instruments (e.g. LIFE), in particular, those related to the ESC areas; - Beginning of planning for Ukraine's post-war reconstruction, which prioritises EGD approaches and, in general, the acquisition of EU membership. The devastating consequences of the war actualized the issues of full-fledged restructuring of Ukraine's economy on new principles and without the past shortcomings, in particular, the lack of qualitative strategic approaches, regulated markets, lack of incentives for the introduction of new technologies. The updated Energy Strategy of Ukraine until 2050 was approved by the Order of the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine No. 373-r "On Approval of the Energy Strategy of Ukraine until 2050" dated 21 April 2023. The Strategy defines strategic goals and objectives in the short-term (until 2025), medium-term (until 2032) and long-term perspective (until 2050). Ukraine will continue to follow the global trend of decarbonisation. Having ratified the Paris Climate Agreement in 2016, Ukraine has adopted a vector to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in different sectors of the economy, increase the ability to adapt to the adverse effects of climate change and promote low-carbon development. In addition, given the European integration vector of development and the need to synchronise policies and plans with relevant EU policies, Ukraine aims to achieve a climate-neutral energy sector by 2050, which is in line with the objectives of the European Green Deal, Energy Community plans, etc. From January 1, 2024, the State Fund for Decarbonization and Energy Efficient Transformation will start operating in Ukraine. The fund will be replenished from eco-taxes paid for the emission of carbon into the atmosphere from stationary sources of pollution. Ukraine will have a reliable, legally protected source of funds to implement energy efficiency programs, reduce CO2 emissions and support alternative energy sources. For the first time, the 'polluter pays' principle was fixed at the legislative level. The Fund will be filled at the expense of the environmental tax on CO2 emissions. First of all, it will be paid by large industrial enterprises. It is also planned to attract international loans and grants. The proceeds will be used to introduce new technologies that will reduce emissions, as well as thermal upgrades of homes and social facilities and other projects. It is predicted that by 2030 in Ukraine, in accordance with the National Energy Efficiency Action Plan, final energy consumption will decrease by 17 percent. As well as a 65 percent reduction in CO2 emissions compared to 1990, this is provided for in the Updated Nationally Determined Contribution of Ukraine to the Paris Agreement. |
| United Kingdom | The UK Net Zero Research and Innovation Framework Delivery Plan 2022-2025 sets out the £4.2 billion of UK government spending on net zero research and innovation across this Spending Review period 2022-25. The aim is to catalyse interest from researchers and further investment from innovative UK businesses. A key role of government is to catalyse and accelerate private sector investment so that UK companies can benefit from the growing clean tech market. It should aim to deliver a pipeline of investable propositions which increase investor confidence, crowd-in private sector investment, and support a cost-effective net zero transition. Public R&I programmes focussed on net zero can also have wider benefits for the economy and society, including improving infrastructure such as the UK's buildings stock, and the potential for creating high quality jobs and delivering economic growth across all regions of the UK. By 2030, net zero innovation has the potential to unlock 300,000 jobs in exports and domestic industry through new commercial opportunities across low carbon sectors/ The government has therefore prioritised government investment based on: - Maximising UK strategic advantage and developing UK energy security - focussing on the highest potential for UK business opportunities and jobs to enhance economic competitiveness and for securing UK energy supply. - Expected contribution to delivering the UK's carbon budgets and major decarbonisation - accelerating the manufacturing and scaling of the solutions that will remove or reduce greenhouse gas emissions, including by considering the current state of technologies and the potential for R&I to make rapid progress. - Retaining optionality of different net zero pathways - investing in a portfolio of solutions, and tolerating some failure, including novel technologies such as greenhouse gas removals, whilst reviewing and adapting to new knowledge Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ) has been created to deliver Net Zero priorities. DESNZ is responsible for 25% of £4.2 billion of UK government spending on net zero research and innovation spend. DESNZ priorities are: 1. Ensure security of energy supply this winter, next winter and in the longer-term - bringing down energy bills and reducing inflation. 2. Ensure the UK is on track to meet its legally binding Net Zero commitments and support economic growth by significantly speeding up delivery of network infrastructure and domestic energy production. 3. Improve the energy efficiency of UK homes, businesses and public sector buildings to meet the 15% demand reduction ambition. 4. Deliver current schemes to support energy consumers with their bills and develop options for long-term reform to improve how the electricity market works for families and businesses. 5. Seize the economic benefits of Net Zero, including the jobs and growth created through investment in new green industries. 6. Pass the Energy Bill to support the emerging CCUS and hydrogen sectors; to update the governance of the energy system; and to reduce the time taken to consent offshore wind. The UK Net Zero Research and Innovation Framework Delivery Plan 2022-2025 includes high level deliverables (outputs) for all major programmes and how these contribute to longer term policy objectives (outcomes). The UK Government have made a commitment to publish progress against this plan by the end of the Spending Review period in 2025 and the Innovation Delivery Board was set up to track this. The Delivery Plan, for the first time, provides transparency over net zero R&D funding decisions made as part of the Spending Review process for 2022-25. Subsequent plans, covering future Spending Review periods, will continue to improve reporting on the outcomes of programmes and will be based on the most up to date learning and achievements from the current portfolio. The portfolio also supports programmes in earlier stage technologies, such as Greenhouse Gas Removals, Hydrogen production, and harder to decarbonise sectors such as Industry. These require government intervention to help create new markets, or to overcome technological barriers preventing private sector investment. For Buildings, programmes focus on demonstrating the most effective and efficient ways to support large-scale deployment of low carbon heating and retrofitting solutions. Continued support for fundamental research through UKRI to facilitate crucial policy decisions, such as in agriculture and land-use are also important aspects of a balanced portfolio. This helps to ensure the continuing development of ideas across early-stage research, development and demonstration. |
| Viet Nam | In 2023, Viet Nam did not provide information on 'Net zero transitions' policy debates. |